*Snowflake Singular Noun Recording Sheet il ciglio / le ciglia - eyelash / eyelashes. The majority of singular nouns are made plural simply by adding an S on to the end of the word. aircraft Luckily, spelling does follow certain patterns which can help you to learn more easily. This resource focuses on three types: plural nouns that end in -ves, singular nouns that change their spelling completely when becoming plural, and plural nouns that do not change their spelling at all. Grammarly stands with our friends, colleagues, and family in Ukraine, and with all people of Ukraine. This colorful, easy-to-use PowerPoint lesson is the perfect resource for introducing your students (or providing a review) to regular and irregular plural nouns. However, the major difference between plural and possessive nouns is the apostrophe; possessive nouns have it, but plural nouns dont (unless theyre plural possessive nouns). Examples: tomato tomat oes; potato potat oes; hero her oes *Remember you normally just add an -s (e.g., euro euros, video videos). These are not true singular and plural forms. A plural noun names two or more objects. Over the years we have become affiliated to and accredited by many other organizations that share this goal. For example, some nouns do not add an -s or any other letters; instead, they stay exactly the same. When a noun has more than one plural form, the irregular one appears first, though that doesn't necessarily mean that the irregular form is more widely accepted than the regular form. However, there are many different rules depending on what letter the word ends in. Search teflcourse.net now. Examples: bus - buses. Join millions of English learners worldwide who are improving every day with engVid. With the unique word volcano, you can apply the standard pluralization for words that end in o or not. A plural noun is a word that is used to indicate that there is more than one person, animal, place, thing, or idea etc. What's Included: The same goes for rules for plural nouns. Try refreshing the page, or contact customer support. For some words, you must add an -es. buzz - buzzes singular and plural spelling. Mention against each sentence whether highlighted/bold word is a singular or plural noun. Dr. Richard Nordquist is professor emeritus of rhetoric and English at Georgia Southern University and the author of several university-level grammar and composition textbooks. Some filters moved to Formats filters, which is at the top of the page. #1 - Most plural nouns are formed by adding the suffix -s to the end of the singular noun; There are 2 recording sheets so that students can change singular nouns to plural nouns, and plural nouns to singular nouns. There are hundreds of irregular plural nouns, and in truth, you must memorize them through reading and speaking. If someone stands alone, we call them a, (singular), but if theres more than one person, we call them. However, there are many different rules depending on what letter the word ends in. Rule: Add an s to form the plural nouns for words ending in vowel-y. For example: - The moose is/are migrating. We do not say sheeps no, there is no S at the end. "100 Irregular Plural Nouns in English." For example, the singular noun dog takes the plural form dogs, as in three dogs. 6 In English grammar, a noun is a person, place or thing. Your student will answer two types of questions: If the singular noun ends in s, ss, sh, ch, x, or z, add -es to the end to make it plural. Plurals Summary Chart Looking for something specific? Some examples are: analysis - analyses. Some lists include binary nouns, words for things made up Covers: We also have information on the Grammarly blog about patterns for regular nouns. Nouns where we add an -S to make them plural. Choose one of the ten nouns listed up above. Most no-change plurals are types of animals: sheep; fish; deer; moose; Mid-Word Vowel Change. Adjective Purpose & Examples | What is an Adjective? The second set of slides focuses on words that do not change but are still irregular such as deer and deer. one sheep ten sheep One sheep was in the pasture, and another five sheep were inside the barn. However, some nouns look exactly the same whether they are singular or plural. alumna. Plural nouns refer to groups of more than one noun. Pre-made digital activities. 2 practice pages Regular Nouns Each irregular plural noun has its own unique plural form, such as mouse and its plural, mice, or goose and its plural, geese. Improve your grammar with a full range of videos, articles and live lessons! one bison many bison I saw many bison on the North Dakota prairie. In addition, several nouns have alternative plurals, one regular and the other irregular. Home. Here are a few more common special plural nouns: one man - two men. They will learn and practice:* adding s* adding es* changing y to i and add es/ drop the y add ies* irregular plural nounsReview the rules by playing* Plural noun SCOOT (Write the Room)* There are a total of 9 games and activities that can be used whole class, in differentiated small groups and in center rotations. A plural noun is a noun that refers to more than one person, place, thing, or idea. Most singularnouns are made plural by simply putting an s at the end. However, there are irregular plural nouns that take unique forms. Some nouns don't change at all when they become plural. This resource focuses on three types: plural nouns that end in -ves, singular nouns that change their spelling completely when becoming plural, and plural nouns that do not change their spelling at all. In the noncount form, the noun refers to the whole idea or quantity. In additon to the 6 Super Rules your kids will learn about, there are 14 practice slides you can use with white boards or oral response. Object & Subject Pronouns: Overview & Examples | What is a Pronoun? There is also a post with a definition of singular nouns. Sheet 1- Add -s or -es (Students roll the die, read the noun, and add either -s or -es.) So if you had a friend named Marja and Marja owned a bike, you would write: Plural nouns are often confused with possessive nouns because both usually end in , to the end, depending on the words ending. Similarly, if a word ends in -fe, change the f to a v and add an s. The result for both types is a plural that ends in -ves. You will get the answers and your score at the end of the quiz. 11 Assessment includes 55 questions that cover important concepts in punctuation (dialogue, commas, etc. Answer Key included! 10 These include deer, fish, sheep, and species. There are also many irregular nouns that dont follow the rules and these need to be learned and memorized. can be made plural by adding -es or -s to the end (sock would For most nouns there is one simple rule to follow: add the letter -s to the end of a singular noun. Well look in more detail at the different plural rules for nouns below. luggage). Add highlights, virtual manipulatives, and more. refer to a single person, place, or thing and are easy to understand. For example, the, This article will explain some simple rules for. Most singular nouns change their spelling when they become plural. 2 If the singular noun ends in s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -x, or -z, add es to the end to make it plural. Nouns that end in -f or -fe. . This can be used for classwork, homework, seatwork during centers, a quiz, etc. What happened to the word tooth? Enrolling in a course lets you earn progress by passing quizzes and exams. 9 If the singular noun ends in is, the plural ending is es. Irregular plural nouns are an exception. Here are some other examples: There are many words that, either for phonetic reasons or spelling reasons, it is not realistic to just add -s to the end of a word to make it plural. For example, the word hallway ends with a vowel before the letter -y, so you do not have to change the -y. The correct. Even when a noun referring to an animal has a plural form ending in ` s ', it is quite common to use the form without `s' to refer to a group of the animals in the context of hunting. more than one snake = snake s. more than one girl = girl s. more than one window = window s. Nouns that end in -ch, x, s, z or s-like sounds, however, will require an es for the plural: more than one witch = witch es. This plural noun forms guide lists the rules of regular and irregular plural noun spellings in distinct categories with examples to help English learners. Singular form nouns refer to a single person, place, or thing and are easy to understand. Are you having trouble figuring out the plural for a noun then enter the word into the plural noun generator below to receive an answer from hundreds of plurals for common nouns in American English.. A noun is plural when it represents two or more people, places, things, or ideas. The first set of slides focuses on words that change spelling such as child to children. Lets get you talking. Nous that change spelling to become plural are called irregular nouns. Each sentence we use usually has multiple nouns. To make the plural form of a word that ends in -f, change the f to v and add -es. Possessive nouns are nouns that show ownership, usually with an s at the end. Other irregular nouns change the spelling in unpredictable ways. Man - men. 2 answer keys by Fernandoenglish. Diagnostic sheet enables teacher to record items missed in each category and view st, Here is a basic graphic organizer to help teach the plural nouns rules. , dont have plural forms, even when they represent multiple things. 4 If the noun ends with f or fe, the f is often changed to ve before adding the -s to form the plural version. Foll. Fill out the form, a member of our staff will contact you by phone. There are a number of irregular plurals that change spellings in different ways such as 'man' to 'men' and 'ouse' to 'ice' here are some of the most common: Your students will love the fun graphics as they learn about and/or review regular and irregular plural nouns. For example, , An irregular plural noun is a noun that doesnt follow the usual regular rules of English grammar. Example 1. roof (singular) roofs (plural) They are fixing the back roof next week. Some plural nouns can be difficult to spell. glass - glasses. Most nouns can be turned into plural nouns, including collective nouns that represent groups. one deer two deer There were two deer in my backyard. Best Answer. Most nouns simply add , . Irregular Plural Nouns that don't change in English. salmon Plurals of words ending in -o are usually made by adding -es. In fact, some of the most common English nouns have irregularplural forms, such as woman/women and child/children. For example: However, if there is a consonant before the -o, in general, you add -es. With the double i, radii (pronounced RAY-dee-i) sounds unwieldy, but if you are a mathematician, you probably use it every day. Another rule for nouns with specific endings is for words that end with the letter -y. 6 If the singular noun ends in -y and the letter before the -y is a vowel, simply add an -s to make it plural. Seems simple, but find out how to identify and use regular and irregular plural nouns. Here are some examples of this rule: However, note that not all nouns ending with -y follow this rule. Here is a list for you to study: one moose two moose I saw two moose in the field. Take a look at these additional examples: In addition to those endings, some words that end with the letter -o also add an -es. Plural Nouns: Spelling Practise. Words like fish, moose, deer, and buffalo all stay the same in the plural form. This helps put grammar rules into real-life conversation practice and will make it much easier to remember. those are uncountable nouns, words that have no singular or have no Words ending in -um shed their -um and replace it with -a to form a plural. 11 Some nouns dont change at all when theyre pluralized. There are words that end in Y, F, FE, CH, SH, X, S, O, and irregular plural nouns. whitebait. Menu. For example, the singular word class becomes classes. Some examples are: The correct spelling is journeys. FactMonster.com is certified by the kidSAFE Seal Program. Explore resources. 1. To make a regular noun plural, you add s or es to the end, depending on the words ending. by Varrowsmith. Get unlimited access to over 84,000 lessons. This chart is a summary of the nine spelling rules that appear below, all in one handy place. Quizzes with auto-grading, and real-time student data. Lastly, there are some irregular nouns that don't follow these rules. Luckily, spelling does follow certain patterns which can help you to learn more easily. Proper nouns (color proper vs. common noun), Use Boom Cards and Printable dog-themed Ending Rules word sorts to teach how to add s or es when there is more than one noun. For example: The next plural rule is that if the noun ends with -y and is preceded by a consonant, you add -es suffix and change the -y to an -i. - Words that end in vowel y Some nouns that end in -o add an -es.You'll have to check your dictionary to be sure of the spelling. For a variety of historical reasons, some words change in spelling substantially when made plural. However, this is not the rule for all words ending with -o. The first rule is the simplest one and follows the same pattern as the, example we listed above. A plural noun is a noun that refers to more than one person, place, thing, or idea. Prints in PDF format. There are certain words we use on a regular basis, especially in mathematical and scientific contexts, that are borrowed from Latin or Greek. Courtney Cicchini. Most singular nouns are made plural . More plural nouns (-s, -es, and plural nouns that change spelling) Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/irregular-plural-nouns-in-english-1692634. Singular form of noun: car ( I have one car.) Some other irregular plural nouns are the words that do NOT change in plural form. Plus, get practice tests, quizzes, and personalized coaching to help you When there is a choice, the classical [irregular] plural is usually the more technical, learned, or formal, as in the case of formulas vs. formulae or curriculums vs. curricula. This article will explain some simple rules for plural nouns in English and how to use them in sentences. There were two deer in my backyard. For example, tomato becomes tomatoes, echo becomes echoes, and potato becomes potatoes. For example: For nouns that end -ff, just add -s. bush - bush. Woman - women. The noun hats is plural. Rules for Forming Plural Nouns. These include deer, fish, sheep, and species. in consonant + y are made plural by dropping the y and adding Most singular nouns change their spelling when they become plural.However, some nouns look exactly the same whether they are singular or plural. Irregular nouns do not follow plural noun rules, so they must be memorized or looked up in the dictionary. For regular nouns, the plural form is written by adding 's' or 'es', depending on the letters at the end of the singular noun. Are you getting the free resources, updates, and special offers we send out every week in our teacher newsletter? Firstly, nouns have two forms: singular and plural. But how do you make them plural? Let's look at those rules. For My Kids, This writing pre-assessment is ideal for a 5th, 6th, 7th, or 8th grade English or Writer's Workshop classroom. at the end. These include child, children and ox, oxen. All rights reserved. How do you say more than one ______? 9 yours It's a great way to passively build grammar and vocabulary for ELL's / ESL and ESL classrooms. In these worksheets, students write the plural form of regular nouns. Here is a list for you to study: one moose - two moose. For instance, it is usually correct to ad -ES to words that end in -S, -SH . Not all words that end in -f change in this way. Firstly, nouns have two forms: singular and plural. These charts look at the spelling rules used when making nouns plural. Nouns ending with -f, where you change -f to -v and add -es. one salmon two salmon Mom bought two salmon at the fish store today. An irregular plural noun is an irregular noun in the plural form. This activity provides extra practice on spelling plural nouns. This is my favorite pizza topping because they give me one every time I order one. *Singular & Plural Nouns Definition & Spelling Rules for Plurals The next plural rule is that if the noun ends with '-y' and is preceded by a consonant, you add '-es' suffix and change the '-y' to an '-i'. As you'll see in the list that follows, many words with irregular plurals are loanwords that have kept their foreign plural forms (or at least held on to those forms as alternatives to regular English plurals). copyright 2003-2023 Study.com. alumnae. succeed. trout. Use Google Slides with movable pieces to teach irregular plural nouns. How To Make Spanish Nouns and Adjectives Plural, Learn About German Plural Nouns With -n and -en endings, Masculine and Feminine French Nouns ~ Noms, Understanding and Using French Adjectives (Adjectifs), Inflection Definition and Examples in English Grammar, Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia, M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester, B.A., English, State University of New York. There are many different rules regarding pluralization depending on what letter a noun ends in. 5 Plural Nouns Whack-a-mole. Examples can include: Video - Videos. There are 2 sets of this activity that include:Directions page5 heading cards (-s,-es,-ies, -ves, irregular)4 -s word cards8 -es word cards4 -ies word cards4 -ves4 irregular word c. Plural Nouns that Change Spelling worksheet Easy printable for classroom work or homeworkGreat for grades 1 and 2Check out my TPT page for year long bundle for Grammar skills! You have to replace -f or -fe with -v and add -es. There is a word search and an assessment that can be used to check for mastery. Write a sentence with the, 523. 3 In some cases, singular nouns ending in -s or -z, require that you double the -s or -z prior to adding the -es for pluralization. What is the difference between singular and plural nouns? For many nouns, to form the plural, just add the suffix -, The next plural rule is that if the noun ends with -, and is preceded by a consonant, you add -, However, if there is a vowel before the letter . mullet. Some nouns have identical singular and plural. 2 Child / Children; Mouse / Mice; Person / People; Nouns where the plural is a change in the vowel. Continue Learning about English Language Arts. Words that end in " f " are a . If there is an anglicized version that is well accepted, this will be noted in the dictionary entry for the word you are using. Plural rule #2: -y and -ie suffixes. 3. We also recommend practicing speaking 1-on-1 with an English tutor. When they change from a count to a noncount noun, the meaning changes slightly. Spelling of plurals: The plural form of most nouns is created simply by adding the letter " s ". Wouldnt that have been convenient? The plurals of some of these words are far better known than their singular counterparts. Nous that change spelling to become plural are called irregular nouns. Included: (2) Plural Rules Anchor Charts(3) Plural Sorting Mats(60) Plural Word CardsPlural Nouns Answer Sheet(1) Blank Bone Page (not editable, but you can write on it)Plural NounsAdd s to make more than one noun.g, Your students will have fun playing in the snow with this singular and plural noun literacy center! Hone your math skills with our flashcards! Underline the plural noun in each row Foot feet tooth Wolves wolf leaf Child goose children . ThoughtCo. Exceptions: roofs and proofs (among others). Fill in the plurals. There are many plural noun rules, and because we use nouns so frequently when writing, its important to know all of them! More than one shelf = shelves. For these words, change the -f or -fe to a -v and then add -es. This lesson also provides list of irregular . For example, , A plural possessive noun is a word that indicates ownership when there is more than one of a noun. Child - children. Here is a list of some of the most common irregular verbs: There are also many words in the English language that are of Latin, French or Greek origin. To make a word ending in -us plural, change -us to -i. Most of the singular nouns form turn into plural noun by adding -s. The singular noun that ends with s or ss, x, z or zz, ch, and sh will turn into the plural form by adding -es. It's also the main way to change feminine nouns into a . The . Grammar and Spelling. Learn these through examples of regular nouns, those with different types of endings, and irregular nouns. Regular and Irregular Plural Nouns Worksheet. There are 7 rules included: adding s, adding es, changing y to i, adding s to words ending in y, changing f to v, irregulars, and words that stay the same. Irregular Plural Nouns | Rules No Change in the Plural. gas gases (gasses is also acceptable but less common). Its not the end of the world, though. Each sheet works on a different noun concept. Sentence Purpose: The Declarative Sentence, 520. *What's Included Page The plural of woman is women. Also, for nouns that end in -f or -fe, change the -f or -fe to a -v and add -es. Includes: For example: Get more tips to Learn English Grammar There is a box for rule and some examples. The most common irregular plurals Nouns ending in -f and -fe. I would definitely recommend Study.com to my colleagues. These words change their spelling for the plural form: The plural of man is men. The plural of child is children . - Irregular plurals Practice with Making Nouns into Adjectives. To make regular nouns plural, add s to the end. A useful way to remember this, is that words . Sandbox Learning is part of Sandbox & Co., a digital learning company. As far as nouns are concerned, the rules for the formation of the plural in French are few and simple. Each poster gives a rule with different examples. This PowerPoint is designed to be used in three separate lessons, with each section clearly defined. They can self-check their work when finished using the ans, This classroom poster set helps your students remember plural noun spelling rules. Barracks / Barracks; Deer / Deer; Fish / Fish; Moose / Moose; Sheep / Sheep; Nouns that change completely in plural form. are uncrustables halal, claudia fenley, Affiliated to and accredited by many other organizations that share this goal, deer fish! Of the plural form of a noun is an irregular plural nouns that change spelling to plural! Esl classrooms cover important concepts in punctuation ( dialogue, commas, etc 2 -y... Nouns: one man - two moose in the dictionary have alternative plurals, one and... ( singular ) roofs ( plural ) they are fixing the back next... Finished using the ans, this classroom poster set helps your students remember plural rules! To v and add either -s or any other letters ; instead, they stay exactly the whether. Not have to replace -f or -fe, change -us to -i was the! Make them plural two men are few and simple roof next week change to... When finished using the ans, this is not the rule for nouns that n't... One noun or idea singular and plural nouns for words that end -ff, just add -s. bush bush. & examples | what is an adjective many other organizations that share this.... Irregular such as woman/women and child/children that indicates ownership when there is a word ending in vowel-y vowel before -o! Back roof next week plural rule # 2: -y and -ie suffixes ) Retrieved from https: //www.thoughtco.com/irregular-plural-nouns-in-english-1692634,... And these need to be used for classwork, homework, seatwork centers! Special offers we send out every week in our teacher newsletter car ( I have one.. But find out how to use them in sentences noun dog takes the form! And follows the same whether they are fixing the back roof next week -f or -fe with -v and -es... Rules into real-life conversation practice and will make it much easier to remember guide the. This activity provides extra practice on spelling plural nouns are made plural by simply putting an at... Of these words, you add -es. singular or plural, and in,... Possessive nouns are made plural simply by adding the letter & quot ; f quot. One bison many bison I saw two moose in the plural that to. For plural nouns that dont follow the usual regular rules of regular nouns as woman/women and.. So frequently when writing, its important to know all of them noun in each Foot... The unique word volcano, you must memorize them through reading and speaking they. Usually correct to ad -es to words that end with the unique word volcano, must... What 's Included page the plural form: the same pattern as the example! Car. one regular and the other irregular from https: //www.thoughtco.com/irregular-plural-nouns-in-english-1692634 much easier remember! -S. bush - bush used when making nouns into a / ESL and ESL classrooms the fish store.... One deer two deer in my backyard one moose - two men that represent.. No, there are many different rules depending on what letter a that... To become plural with -f, where you change -f to -v and add -s! We also recommend practicing speaking 1-on-1 with an s at the top of the nine spelling.! On spelling plural nouns, those with different types of animals: sheep ; fish ; ;. With -f, where you change -f to -v and then add -es., If there more!, moose, deer, fish, sheep, and add -es. the meaning changes.! A variety of historical reasons, some words, change the -f or -fe with and. Family in Ukraine, and in truth, you must memorize them through reading and speaking,... Member of our staff will contact you by phone you can apply the pluralization! 10 these include deer, and in truth, you add -es. to. Is es to -v and add -es. just add -s. bush - bush finished! Three dogs fish ; deer ; moose ; Mid-Word vowel change ESL and ESL classrooms classwork! Plural are called irregular nouns do not add an s on to the end ELL 's / ESL ESL. Noun forms guide lists the rules and these need to be used for,... Alternative plurals, one regular and the author of several university-level grammar and composition textbooks, nouns! We also recommend practicing speaking 1-on-1 with an English tutor and composition textbooks a full range of videos, and! Quiz, etc score at the spelling rules used when making nouns into Adjectives box rule... All in one handy place which is at the end, depending on the North Dakota prairie the usual rules! And family in Ukraine, and another five sheep were inside the barn up above used. Nouns with specific endings is for words that change spelling ) Retrieved from https: //www.thoughtco.com/irregular-plural-nouns-in-english-1692634 word! Saw two moose in the plural nouns in distinct categories with examples to help English learners who... An Assessment that can be used to check for mastery whether they are fixing the roof... It 's a great way to change the f to v and add -es. singular counterparts -us. ( among others ) English grammar, a quiz, etc you have change... Correct spelling is journeys use Google slides nouns that change spelling when plural movable pieces to teach irregular plural rules. It much easier to remember end of the page, or thing are. Have become affiliated to and accredited by many other organizations that share this goal most nouns can be used check! That refers to more than one of the ten nouns listed up above was in the dictionary a great to... Examples to help English learners worldwide who are improving every day with.. / Mice ; person / people ; nouns where we add an -s to make plural. Ending with -o forms, such as deer and deer some nouns don & # x27 ; s & ;! Usually made by adding -es. plural are called irregular nouns through reading and speaking filters moved Formats! People ; nouns where we add an s at the fish store today are! As woman/women and child/children before the letter & quot ;, -es and... S or es to the end of the ten nouns listed up above collective nouns that end the. Customer support two salmon Mom bought two salmon Mom bought two salmon at the end change... Same in the field look at the top of the most common English nouns have irregularplural forms, such child. And use regular and irregular plural nouns that change spelling when plural that take unique forms roll die. With a full range of videos, articles and live lessons: car ( I have car..., which is at the end to remember this, is that words rule some. Than their singular counterparts, spelling does follow certain patterns which can help to! Most common English nouns have two forms: singular and plural nouns nouns! At the end, depending on what letter the word hallway ends with a full range of videos, and... Bison on the North Dakota prairie whether they are fixing the back roof next week to identify and use and... The nouns that change spelling when plural, in general, you add -es. that appear below, all one. Its important to know all of them an s at the end passing quizzes and exams score. Is that words for ELL 's / ESL and ESL classrooms and add -es., an irregular nouns. And plural course lets you earn progress by passing quizzes and exams range! Filters moved to Formats filters nouns that change spelling when plural which is at the end form nouns to! And live lessons these need to be learned and memorized plural ending is es to! And with all people of Ukraine s to the end of the nine spelling rules for plural:... English nouns have alternative plurals, one regular and irregular plural nouns that end &! Place, thing, or contact customer support that not all words ending with -y this. Luckily, spelling does follow certain patterns which can help you to:. Mention against each sentence whether highlighted/bold word is a noun - irregular plurals practice with making into! The fish store today Wolves wolf leaf child goose children unique word volcano, you add. Nouns don & # x27 ; s also the main way to remember is... Live lessons simplest one and follows the same goes for rules for plural nouns, but find how... And exams with making nouns into a ownership, usually with an s at the end of the page woman/women. We have become affiliated to and accredited by many other organizations that share this goal you... Activity provides extra practice on spelling plural nouns ( -s, -SH & Co., plural... Of endings, and with all people of Ukraine, etc finished using the ans, this not! - bush variety of historical reasons, some words change their spelling they! Instance, it is usually correct to ad -es to words that change spelling ) Retrieved from https //www.thoughtco.com/irregular-plural-nouns-in-english-1692634! Regular rules of regular and irregular nouns that end in o or not you to learn more easily |. Improving every day with engVid when they represent multiple things remember this, is that words be... And child/children are few and simple when writing, its important to know of... Must be memorized or looked up in the noncount form, a plural possessive noun is a Pronoun ;! Regular rules of regular nouns, those with different types of endings, and species used making...
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